Using payments and incentives in research

*Payments and incentives for participants are a common practice in research, especially in fields that involve human subjects. However, they also raise ethical issues and challenges that researchers need to consider carefully before deciding whether to offer them or not. This document aims to provide some guidance and tips for researchers on this topic, based on the principles of respect, beneficence, justice and integrity.

Respect: Researchers should respect the autonomy and dignity of participants, and avoid any undue influence or coercion that may compromise their voluntary consent. Payments and incentives should not be so high that they create an irresistible temptation for participants to join or stay in a study, or so low that they exploit their vulnerability or need. Researchers should also consider the cultural and social context of the participants, and how payments and incentives may affect their expectations, motivations and relationships.

Beneficence: Researchers should maximise the benefits and minimise the harms of their research, both for the participants and for the society. Payments and incentives should not compromise the scientific validity or quality of the research, or introduce any bias or conflict of interest. Researchers should also ensure that payments and incentives are fair and proportional to the time, effort and inconvenience involved in participating, and that they do not create any undue burden or risk for the participants.

Justice: Researchers should ensure that payments and incentives are distributed equitably and transparently among the participants, and that they do not create or reinforce any social or economic inequalities or injustices. Researchers should also avoid any discrimination or exploitation of vulnerable or marginalised groups, such as children, minorities, refugees, prisoners, etc. Researchers should also respect the rights and interests of the communities or populations from which the participants are drawn, and ensure that they share the benefits of the research.

Integrity: Researchers should conduct their research with honesty, accountability and professionalism, and adhere to the ethical standards and codes of conduct of their discipline and institution. Payments and incentives should not compromise the integrity of the researchers or the participants, or undermine the trust and credibility of the research. Researchers should also disclose any payments and incentives to the relevant authorities, such as ethics committees, funders, publishers, etc., and obtain their approval if required.

**The following are questions that a researcher should consider before using payments or in their research:

• How will the payment or incentive affect the voluntary nature of participation and the informed consent process?
• How will the payment or incentive influence the representativeness and diversity of the sample and the generalisability of the findings?
• How will the payment or incentive be perceived by the participants, the research community, and the public in terms of fairness, ethics, and transparency?
• How will the payment or incentive be reported and accounted for in the research budget, documentation, and dissemination?

*Microsoft Bing CoPilot generated response from the following prompt: “Produce a guidance document for researchers that outlines issues and considerations on the topic of payments and incentives for participants. It should provide both an overview of the ethical problem and provide pragmatic solutions and tips for the researcher prior to deciding whether payment or incentive is appropriate or necessary.”

**Microsoft Bing CoPilot generated response from the following prompt: “Provide four questions that a researcher should consider before using payments or incentives, in the form of tangible rewards (e.g. vouchers), in their research to recruit participants.”